Platos Apology Of Socrates Essay Example for Free

Platos Apology Of Socrates Essay INTRODUCTION Plato makes it clear, especially in his Apology of Socrates, that he was one of Socrates’ devoted young followers. In that dialogue, Socrates is presented as mentioning Plato by name as one of those youths close enough to him to have been corrupted, if he were in fact guilty of corrupting the youth,[1] and questioning why their fathers and brothers did not step forward to testify against him if he was indeed guilty of such a crime. The relationship between Plato and Socrates is not unproblematic. The charges against Socrates says that he has two sets of accusations: the old, longstanding charges that he is a criminal, a busybody, and a curious person who makes inquiries into the earth and sky, and the recent legal charges that he is guilty of corrupting the young, and of believing in supernatural things of his own invention instead of the gods recognized by the State.[2] Which he terms as charges stemmed from years of gossip and prejudice against him and hence was unanswerable. The trial of Socrates is the central, unifying event of the great Platonic dialogues.   The causes that occasioned this Apology were as follow: Aristophanes, at the instigation of Mellitus, undertook, in his comedy of the clouds, to ridicule the venerable character of Socrates, on the stage; and the way being once open to calumny and defamation, the fickle and licentious populace paid no reverence to the philosopher, whom they had before regarded as a being of a superior order.[3] When this had succeeded, Melitus stood forth to criminate him, together with Anytus and Lycon; and the philosopher was summoned before the tribunal of the Five Hundred. He was accused of making innovations in the religion of his country, and corrupting the youth. However, as both these accusations must have been obviously false to an unprejudiced tribunal, the accusers relied for the success of their cause on perjured witnesses, and the envy of the judges, whose ignorance would readily yield to misrepresentation, and be influenced and guided by false eloquence and fraudulent arts. In the Apology, Socrates tries to dismiss rumors that he is a sophist and defends himself against charges of disbelief in the gods and corruption of the young. Socrates insists that long-standing slander will be the real cause of his demise, and says the legal charges are essentially false. Socrates famously denies being wise, and explains how his life as a philosopher was launched by the oracle at Delphi. He says that his quest to resolve the riddle of the oracle put him at odds with his fellow man, and that this is the reason he has been mistaken for a menace to the city-state of Athens. THE APOLOGY of SOCRATES Socrates begins by saying he does not know if the men of Athens (his jury) translation often says â€Å"gentlemen,† have been persuaded by his accusers.[4] Plato often begins his Socratic dialogues with words that indicate the overall idea of the dialogue; in this case, I do not know. Indeed, in the Apology Socrates will suggest that philosophy consists entirely of a sincere admission of ignorance, and that whatever wisdom he has, comes from his knowledge that he knows nothing. Socrates asks the jury to judge him not by his oratorical skills, but by the truth. Socrates says he will not use ornate words and phrases that are carefully arranged, but will speak the chance thoughts that come into his head. I know not, O Athenians, how my accusers may affect you: I indeed have through them almost forgotten myself, so persuasively have they spoken; though, as I may say, they have not asserted any thing, which is true. However, among the multitude of their false assertions I am most surprised at this, in which they say that you ought to beware of being deceived by me, as if I were an eloquent speaker. For that, they should not be ashamed of asserting that which I will immediately confute in reality, since in the present instance I shall appear to you to be by no means eloquent, this seems to me to be the consummation of impudence; unless they call him eloquent who speaks the truth. The three men who brought the charges against Socrates were Anytus, son of a prominent Athenian, Anthemion. Anytus makes an important cameo appearance in Meno. Anytus appears unexpectedly while Socrates and Meno are discussing the acquisition of virtue. Having taken the position that virtue cannot be taught, Socrates adduces as evidence for this that many prominent Athenians have produced son’s inferior to themselves. Socrates says this, and then proceeds to name names, including Pericles and Thucydides. Anytus becomes very offended, and warns Socrates that running people down could get him into trouble someday. Meletus, the only accuser to speak during Socrates’ defense. He is mentioned in another dialog, Euthyphro, but does not appear in person. Socrates says there that Meletus is a young unknown with hooknose. In the Apology, Meletus allows himself to be cross-examined by Socrates and stumbles into a trap. Apparently not paying attention to the very charges he is bringing, he accuses Socrates of atheism and apparently, of believing in demi-gods. Lycon, about whom little is known; he was, according to Socrates, a representative of the orators. O Athenian, I should answer the first false accusations of me, and my first accusers, Socrates claims to never have been a teacher, in the sense of imparting knowledge to others. He cannot therefore be held responsible if any citizen turns bad. If he has corrupted anyone, why have they not come forward to be witnesses? Alternatively, if they do not realize that they have been corrupted, why have their relatives not stepped forward on their behalf? Many relatives of the young men associated with him, Socrates points out, are presently in the courtroom to support him.[5] For many have been accusers of me to you for many years, and who have asserted nothing true, of whom I am more afraid than of Anytus and his accomplices, though these indeed are powerful in persuading; but those are still more so, who having been conversant with many of you from infancy, have persuaded you, and accused me falsely.[6] For they have said, that there is one Socrates, a wise man, studious of things on high, and exploring every thing under the earth, and of believing in supernatural things of his own invention instead of the gods recognized by the State. These men, O Athenians, who spread this report, are my dire accusers. For those who hear it think that such as investigate these things do not believe that there are gods.[7] In the next place, these accusers are numerous, and have accused me for a long time. They also said these things to you in that age in which you would most readily believe them, some of you being boys and lads; and they accused me quietly, no one speaking in my defence. Such however, as have persuaded you by employing envy and calumny, together with those who being persuaded themselves have persuaded others. Consider, therefore, as I have said, that my accusers are twofold, some having accused me lately, and others formerly; and think that it is necessary I should answer the latter of these first; for you also have heard these my accusers, and much more than you have those by whom I have been recently accused. Be it so. I must defend myself then, O Athenians, and endeavor in this so short a space of time to remove from you the calumny that you have so long entertained. I wish, therefore, that this defence may effect something better both for you and me, and that it may contribute to some more important end. I think however that it will be attended with difficulty, and I am not entirely ignorant what the difficulty is. At the same time let this terminate as Divinity pleases. It is my business to obey the law, and to make my apology.[8] Conclusion Socrates concludes this part of the Apology by reminding the jurors that he will not resort to the usual emotive tricks and arguments. He will not break down in tears, nor will he produce his three sons in the hope of swaying the jurors. He does not fear death; nor will he act in a way contrary to his religious duty. He will rely solely on sound argument and the truth to present his case.[9]Socrates punishment speech angered the jurors. 360 of them voted for the death penalty; only 141 voted for a fine of 3,000 drachmae. Now Socrates has to respond to the verdict. He first addresses those who voted for death. He claims that it is not a lack of arguments that has resulted in his condemnation, but rather his unwillingness to stoop to the usual emotive appeals expected of any defendant facing death. Again, he insists that the prospect of death does not absolve one from following the path of goodness and truth. To those who voted for his acquittal, Socrates gives them encouragement: He says that his daimon did not stop him from conducting his defence in the way that he did as a sign that it was the right thing to do. Therefore, death must be a blessing. It is either an annihilation (thus bringing eternal peace from all worries, and therefore not something to be truly afraid of) or a migration to another place to meet souls of famous people such as Hesiod and Homer and heroes like Odysseus. With these, Socrates can continue his task of questioning. Bibliography Leo Strauss. Socrates and Aristophanic. New York, 1966. [1] Pp 82-2 [2] Pp83- 2 [3] Pp 84-1 [4] Pp 82-2 [5]pp143-1 [6] Pp 138-2 [7] Pp 84-2 [8] Pp 180-2 [9] Pp163-4

Pathogenesis of Anthrax :: Anthrax

There are two main factors that are important for an anthrax infection: bacterial proliferation (growth) and invasion of organ systems and the â€Å"†¦cytotoxic effect of anthrax toxin, with eventual organ failure and death† (Karginov). The first factor occurs once the host has been infected. This infection will never be reached if it were not for a very important characteristic of the bacterium: its ability to form spores. Sporulation occurs in the soil and on culture media but â€Å"†¦not in living tissue, unless exposed to air† (Sakarya). These spores are formed by B. anthracis in soil when the environment becomes inhospitable to growth due to a variety of factors including drought, excessive heat, lack of nutrients, or presence of harsh chemicals. The formation of a spore begins when a bacterium replicates its chromosome and places it within a hard shell. Once the outer cell wall dissolves, the endospore (â€Å"inner spore†) is released. This spore can lie dormant in its environment for a long period of time and survive many harsh conditions. Once the environment is favorable for growth, â€Å"†¦the spore will rehydrate to form a vegetative bacterium† (Campbell). Endospores are highly resistant to UV light, temperature extremes, high pH, drying, high salinity (salt) levels, different types of disinfection, and even time. An experiment conducted at Iowa State University in 1978, â€Å"†¦showed that a 50-year old vial of anthrax spores could still give rise to live bacteria† (Boyer). The two main methods for killing spores are incineration and high-pressure steam. The temperature required by these methods that will result in spore death is 240?F. Most laboratories and hospitals use similar conditions to sterilize instruments in an autoclave. Without the help of these spores, the chance for infection by B. anthracis would decrease dramatically. Once a host is infected by the spores and germinates, producti on of a capsule and three toxin proteins takes place. This leads to an important factor of anthrax infection involving the three toxin proteins: protective antigen (PA), edema factor (EF) and lethal factor (LF). To produce â€Å"†¦active toxins, PA must bind to cellular receptors and then to either EF or LF†(Joellenbeck). Binding of the protective antigen to either of the other two toxin proteins will form â€Å"†¦complexes which penetrate the patient’s cells to cause massive cell swelling and rapid cardiovascular collapse† (Hersack). These complexes will contribute to causing the disease. The edema toxin forms edema, which might â€Å"increase host susceptibility to infection with B.

Child Favoritism Essay

Do parents really have a favorite child? According to â€Å"The Science of Favoritism† by Jeffrey Kluger, yes, parents do have a favorite child although they try very hard to hide it. This article is about parents having a favorite child and the science behind it. It also talks about how nature plays a role in child favoritism, how favoritism is influenced by gender, and what it feels like to be the second best. Not only does Jeffrey Kluger bring up great points throughout his article but he has many examples of real life situations from interviewing people. For example, when going and actually watching various siblings and parents, Catherine Conger, found that â€Å"70% of fathers and 65% of mothers actually do have a favorite child† (Kluger 44-50). She says that â€Å"these numbers are probably even higher because parents try very hard to try and hide their favoritism† (Kluger 44-50). The author relates child favoritism to how it works in nature. Parents want their kids to be the best and most successful out of all the other kids. Just like with animals, parents will pick the strongest, healthiest child to be the favorite and this is mainly because of genes and reproduction. Douglas Mock says that â€Å"we are like the black-eagle who has more than one kid for insurance purposes† (Kluger 44-50). The second or third child would be considered insurance in case the first kid is not strong or smart enough, but if the first child is superior then the policy is terminated. With gender roles in favoritism, the author states that the mother may pick the first son as her favorite and the father may pick the youngest daughter as his favorite. Douglas Mock shows many examples of how this is true and writes that girls will follow in their father’s footsteps where as the boys will follow in their mother’s footsteps. When talking about being second best, the article shows how not being the favorite is very hard on a child. Clare Stocker did a study on 136 sibling pairs and found that the child being loved the less will usually develop depression and low self-esteem. This doesn’t mean that that most favored child will always be the most successful. Child favoritism can also damage the favorite child because they may be used to getting everything and may not develop certain skills. I find all this evidence very compelling, and being the second child and youngest of two sons, I believe a lot of what this article says is true. I also think a lot of it depends upon who the parents are and I don’t totally agree with some of the points made. Yes, my brother is bigger and stronger, but I am probably healthier and smarter. We both have our perfections and we both have our flaws but I would say we are both equal. That doesn’t mean our parents don’t have favorites, because I’m sure they do but I would say it changes from time to time. This article can be used by many people but there is a specific audience that can really benefit from reading this article. I would say the author was trying to reach either young couples thinking about starting a family, couples that have recently started a family, or couples that have already gone through parenting. He would try to reach young couples either thinking about a family or young couples that just started a family because it would be helpful for them to know this information and would hopefully lead to better parenting and decision making so their kids, either the second best or even the favorite, don’t end up totally damaged. The author would also be trying to reach couples that have gone through parenting and all their kids are grown up because maybe they need to help the child that wasn’t loved as much. I think that the author effectively addressed the target audience especially with all the stories and research he found and put in the article. Work Cited Kluger, Jeffrey. â€Å"Why Mom Liked You Best: The Science of Favoritism.† Time. 02 10 2011: 44-50. Print.

Personal Narrative- Pitching at my Softball Game and...

This feeling in my nose tickles throughout. I let out a loud sneeze. I would be lying to you if I did not tell you it was a clean dry sneeze. The dirt from the ground tingled in my nose again and I let out another sneeze. The air was warm but dry the kind of weather that did not know if it wanted to be a warm winter day or a cold spring afternoon. When the wind blew, even just a little bit, it was like an orange dirt tornado out of the movie, The Wizard of Oz going everywhere. I closed my eyelids so tight I start to see textures in neon colours in the inside of my lids. Tighter and tighter, I shut them to assure I would not get dirt in them. When I felt the wind stop blowing, I opened my eyes slowly and saw I was not in Kansas but†¦show more content†¦I stayed on the mound even when there were three outs. I belonged to both sides. At this point during practice, I could feel my muscles in my arm starting to ache from the strenuous exercise I was putting on my arm just through a practice. After every inning my coach would look up at me through his baseball cap squinting. He always said the same line, â€Å" Janie, you want me to give this a go?† I brushed him off and continued doing what I was there for. I felt if I would walk away then it would be a book missing a couple chapters. After the ‘game’ was finished, I stood at the first base line and watched the losing team doing laps. This concept of running because you lost always made me think. I tried to incorporate this into everyday life. If you failed a game of red-rover or you did poorly on a test, would this be an incentive to do better. Could you really look at this as something more then a punishment? Running your sins away. Maybe this view on life is closer to me then I think. In the Jewish religion we have a day of repentment, Yom Kippur, which occurs once a year. This holiday gives you a clean slate for all the mistakes you’ve made but maybe on an everyday stand you need to make sacrifices to yourself to have this pure slate once again. Instead of looking at the team who loses running after the game as a punishment maybe it’s a way to cle anse your mind and forget your mistakes, to start over fresh. I felt weird just standing there and